_____________________________________________________________ Languages Families and Language Classification MA Lloyd (malloy00@io.com) 11 December 1997 _____________________________________________________________ Available languages vary considerably between campaigns. This document attempts to survey the situation for the modern Earth, and should hold in broad outline from 1500-2000 AD if the expansion of the European colonial languages are neglected. The location of the major phyla in the Old World will be approximately right from 800 AD on, New World distributions are less certain. Use caution when researching language distributions in other periods, even modern data is often unreliable. It often isn't clear if two dialects are different enough to be separate languages (which is why language counts can disagree by a factor of 5); the names of languages vary from source to source; population figures are often approximate, routinely count different languages of the same name or 'official minority' together, and may miscount minorities intentionally for political reasons. There are even a few areas left where it isn't altogether certain what languages are spoken, let alone by how many people. Since unwritten languages don't leave traces, historical distributions are usually those of artifacts thought to be unique to a particular culture, obviously a less than ideal marker of language. _____________________________________________________________ Major Languages of the World _____________________________________________________________ Depending on how they are counted, there are 2000 to 8000 languages still spoken in the late 20th century. If speakers were evenly divided each language would have about a million, but in fact the numbers range from 930 million (Mandarin) all the way down to 1. A few languages, mostly indigenous languages of the Americas or Australia, go extinct every year as the last speaker dies. There are 11 languages with 100 million or more native speakers. Together they are the native tongues of half the people on Earth, and are understood by 3/4 of the population: Arabic, Modern Standard French Portuguese Bengali German Russian Chinese, Mandarin Hindi-Urdu Spanish English Japanese Another 35% of the population speaks one of the approximately 70 languages with 10 to 100 million native speakers: Amharic Hausa Polish Arabic, Eastern Hungarian Punjabi Arabic, Sudanese-Sa'idi Igbo Rajasthani Arabic, Western Isan(Northeastern Tai) Rumanian Assamese Italian-Ligurian-Lombard Ruanda Awadi (Eastern Hindi) Javanese Sebuano Belorussian Kannada Serbo-Croatian Bihari(Bhojpuri, Maithili) Korean Sindhi Burmese Kurdish Sinhala Catalan Landhi Sunda Chinese, Hakka Madurese Swahili Chinese, Kan Malagasy Tagalog Chinese, Min Be Malay-Indonesian Tamil Chinese, Min Nan Malayalam Telugu Chinese, Xiang Marathi Thai Chinese, Wu Nepali Turkish-Azeri Chinese, Yueh Netherlandic Ukranian Czech-Slovak Nguni(Zulu-Xhosa-Swazi) Uzbek Danish-Norwegian-Swedish Oriya Vietnamese Farsi-Persian-Dari Oromo Yoruba Greek Pashto Zhongjia Gujerati About 200 languages, used by another 10% of the population, have between 1 and 10 million speakers. The last 5% speak one of the thousands of languages with under 1 million speakers. _____________________________________________________________ Predicting the Future _____________________________________________________________ Science fiction often depicts a universal human language in the relatively near future - typically called something like Anglic, Basic, Lingua Terra or Standard. While the number of languages is falling (it is estimated there are half as many languages now as in 1500) the total will not fall to one anytime soon. There are too many large languages, and a cursory examination of language standardization policies in India or a number of African states is enough to show how reluctant people are to give them up. A fall to three or four hundred languages is quite possible, fewer than that is unlikely. Predicting the fate of an individual language is harder. A language with a few hundred speakers is probably doomed - its speakers already conduct much of their lives in another language. One with 10 million speakers should be stable - it can support a national economy where most people never need another language. But large languages can be replaced (French is replacing Provencal, Standard Italian the languages of Italy, and historically Arabic replaced Egyptian/Coptic) and a micro language can be the revived by renewed interest among the ethnic group that once spoke it (Cornish was actually *extinct* but now again has a few fluent speakers) _____________________________________________________________ Genetic Classification _____________________________________________________________ Languages evolve, and the example of the Romance languages made it obvious to Western scholars some descend from a common ancestor. For a long time efforts focused on the futile task of proving all languages descended from Hebrew, but in the last few decades of the 18th century more objective comparisons of vocabulary and grammar first detected the Indo-European, Uralic, and Algonkian language families. Today there is good agreement on the kinship of many languages, at the lower levels of classification the remaining uncertainties are in fine shades of relationships. The highest levels are more controversial with some linguists maintaining all languages have a common ancestor, while others reject long established groups for 'lack of evidence'. Still most agree all languages belong to a few dozen high level groups. The generally accepted low level units are described below under Inventory of Families, the more reasonable high level units under Major Phyla. _____________________________________________________________ Major Phyla _____________________________________________________________ Afro-Asiatic (Erythric, Lisramic) [300] has been spoken across north Africa, Ethiopia, Arabia and the Near East for at least 5000 years. Some of the oldest writing is in Afro-Asiatic languages. The member families are BERBER, CHADIC, CUSHTIC, EGYPTIAN, OMOTIC and SEMITIC. On linguistic grounds it is fairly clear, but historically has been hotly debated because it crosses racial groups, which is unacceptable to those with racial linguistic theories. The family was formerly called Hamito-Semitic. Altaic [30] is spoken across northern Asia. Most linguists agree there is a valid group including the traditional core of Altaic: MONGOLIAN, TUNGUS and TURKIC. None of these families are closely related, and the phylum has a history of use as a catch-all category. More extensive groupings, such as including Japanese, Korean, or Uralic in the family are no longer widely accepted. Amerind [900] is a proposed phylum consisting of all the languages of the New World, except Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene. That is in North America: ALGONKIAN- RITWAN, BEOTHUK, CADDOAN, CHIMAKUAN, HOKAN, IROQUOIAN, KERESAN, KIOWA-TANOAN, KUTENAI, MUSKOGEAN, PENUTIAN, SALISHAN, SIOUAN-CATAWBA, WAKASHAN, YUCHI, YUKI-GULF, and ZUNI; in Central America: COAHUILTECAN-COMECRUDO, CUITLATEC, EASTERN OTO-MANGUEAN, JICAQUE, LENCA, MAYAN, MIJE-SOKEAN, MISUMALPAN, SUBTIABA-TLAPENEC, TARASCAN, TOTONAC, WAVE, WESTERN OTO-MANGUEAN, XINCA and YUTA-NAWAN; and in South America: ARAWAKAN, ARUTANI-SAPE, BAENAN, CAHUAPANA, CAMSA, CANACHANA, CUYAUBABA, GAMELA, JIVAROAN, KAIRIRI, KATUKINAN, KECHUAMARA, KOAYA, KUKURA, LULE-VILELA, MACRO-CARIB, MACRO-CHIBCHAN, MACRO-GE, MACRO-KALEMBRI-TARUMA, MACRO-WAIKURAN, MACU, MAKU-PUINAVE, MOBIMA, MOSETEN, MUNICHE, MURA, NAMBIQUARAN, NATU, NORTH ANDEAN, PAEZAN, PANKARARU, PANO-TACANAN, PULCHE, SALIVAN, SOUTH ANDEAN, TARARIU, TARUMA, TICUNA-YURI, TIMOTE, TRUMAI, TUKANOAN, TUPI, TUSHA, URARINA-WAORANI, WARPE, YANOMAM, YARURO, YURACARE, YURIMANGUI, ZAMUCOAN and ZAPAROAN. To call it controversial understates the intensity of the debate, which starts with everyone on the other side is a backward looking incompetent and goes downhill from there - not quite to spawn of Satan, but 'heresy', 'propaganda', 'Creationist', 'inquisition', references to ideologically controlled Soviet or Nazi scholarship and the comparison of others on your side to Galileo all put in appearances. My impression is the debate is about methodology rather than results, and I suspect the single phylum will eventually be confirmed. Even most of the opponents of the group admit some of the families of the Americas are probably related, they simply can't agree on which ones. Most of the estimated 3000 languages of the Americas have been exterminated, often intentionally by the various national governments, with and without a policy of exterminating the speakers. Many more are near extinction, perhaps 200 can be expected to survive the current generation. Australian [150] covers the entire Australian mainland and a few islands just off the coast. Most of the diversity is found in the north, in the Kimberley Plateau, Arnhem Land and Barkly Tableland (BUNABAN, BURARRAN, DALY, DJAMINDJUNGAN, DJERAGAN, ENINDILYAKWA, KAKUDJU, KARAWA, KUNGARKANY, KUNWINGKU, LARAKIYAN, MANGERRIAN, MARAN, MINKIN, NYULNYULAN, TIWIAN, WEST BARKLEY, WORORAN, YANYULAN, and YIWAIDJAN are found there). The large PAMA-NYUNGAN family covers the rest of the continent, as well as the northeast end of the Northern Territory. The phylum is surprisingly uncontroversial considering its proposed age far exceeds that most authorities admit language relationships can be detected. The Australian languages have nearly been exterminated, by deliberate national policy in the last century. None have over 5000 speakers, and of an estimated 500 pre-contact languages, all but 50 will vanish with the current generation of elders. Austroasiatic [150] is spoken in southern and southeastern Asia. It may be the original phylum of the region, many of its members are small languages in marginal areas completely surrounded by later arrivals. The families of Austroasiatic are ASLIAN, MON-KHMER, MUNDA, NICOBARESE and VIET-MUONG. Austronesian(Malayo-Polynesian) [1000] is spoken on the islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Austronesian origins are unclear, probably either Taiwan or Melanesia. They appear in the Philipenes by 3000 BC, reached Madagascar and Micronesia by 1500 BC, and settled Polynesia and New Zealand from 200-800 AD. The families included are ATAYALIC, BOUGAINVILLE, CHOISEUL, EAST FORMOSAN, HESPERONIAN, MICRONESIAN, MOLUCCAN, NEW CALEDONIAN, NEW GEORGIAN, OCEANIC, SARMI-YOTAFA, and SOUTH HALMAHERA-GEELVINK-NORTHEAST NEW GUINEA. Caucasian (North Caucasian) [40] is spoken in the Caucasus mountains, and once somewhat to the south of them. Its member families are DAGESTANI, NAX, and WESTERN CAUCASIAN. Traditionally Kartvelian has been included as a South Caucasian branch, but it is now agreed it is not related. Chuckchi-Kamchatkan [5] is a single family spoken in Eastern Siberia. Daic [50] is spoken in Indochina, Thailand, northern Burma, southern China and Hainan island. Daic is probably related to Austronesian, the once popular suggested relationship with Sino-Tibetan can be explained as very early borrowing from Daic *into* proto-Sinitic, a direction not considered by early researchers. Information about the family is confused by extensive use of alternate names and 'official nationalities' unrelated to linguistic reality in many reports from the region. The entire Daic group is called Zhuang-Dong in Chinese work. The families of Daic are KADAI, KAM-SUI and TAI. Elamo-Dravidian [30] is spoken in southern India, with a single outlier in Baluchistan. The phylum probably once occupied most of India and Iran. Written Elamite is as old as the neighboring Sumerian, and was still written in 300 BC. There is some evidence from early Arab writers that there may still have been Elamite speakers as late as +700. The families of Elamo-Dravidian are BRAHUI, DRAVIDIAN and ELAMITE. Eskimo-Aleut [3] is spoken from eastern Siberia across Arctic North America to Greenland. It is a single family consisting of Aleut (in the Aleutians) and dialects of Yupik (western Alaska south of Norton Sound, and Siberia) and Inuit (north and east from Norton Sound). Eskimo is a derogatory ethnonym, not a language name. Indo-European (Indo-Hittite) [150] is spoken by half the people on Earth, distributed on every continent. Historical linguistics begins with the discovery of Indo-European in the late 18th century, a process simplified by its obvious subgroups, and enormous bodies of 2500 year old literature in 3 families, complete with grammars and pronunciation guides! Despite intense research, the original Indo-European homeland is unknown, as is the date of its first great expansion. Contenders include Anatolia (6000 BC, with agriculture) the Ukraine steppes (3000 BC, with the horse) and the Baltic Sea coast (date uncertain, based on common root words for certain living things with ranges overlapping only there). By 2000 BC Indo-European occupied its historic range from Europe to northern India. The second great Indo-European expansion is the much better documented European colonial period from the XVI century on. The Indo-European families are ALBANIAN, ANATOLIAN, ARMENIAN, BALTIC, CELTIC, GERMANIC, GREEK, INDIC, IRANIAN, ITALIC, NURISTANI, SLAVIC and TOCHARIAN. Isolates [10] are languages which after detailed study still can not be convincingly connected to anything else. In most cases there have been many proposed relationships, none of which have held up under close scrutiny. AINU, BASQUE, BIRALE, BURUSHASKI, GILYAK, KOREAN, MAISIN, MBUGU, NEHALI, and SUMERIAN are known to be isolates. There are several languages known only from a name or a few words, but these are probably not isolates, simply unstudied. Japanese-Ryukyuan [4] is a single family spoken on the Japanese islands. It consists of Japanese and the languages of the Ryukyu islands. Though often called Japanese dialects, the Ryukyuan languages are unintelligible to Japanese speakers, and are being replaced by standard Japanese. Kartvelian [4] (South Caucasian) is a single family spoken in the southern Caucasus mountains. Khoisan [30] is today spoken in the less hospitable parts of southern Africa, with two outliers near Lake Victoria. Prior to the Bantu expansion Khoisan probably covered the entire southern half of Africa. The outstanding feature of Khoisan is the use of click sounds, found only in Khoisan and borrowed into neighboring Bantu languages. The letters !, #, |, and || are various clicks. The Khoisan families are HATSA, JU, KHWE-KOVAB, KWADI, SANDWE, TA'A and !WI Miao-Yao [4] consists of two families, MIAO and YAO, both scattered through Southern China and Northern Thailand. Originally spoken in southern China, the Man (Southern Barbarians) have been pushed steadily south by the Han, and into southeast Asia only in the last millennium. Na-Dene [30] is spoken in northwestern North America and the US Southwest. The largest remaining native North American language, Navajo, belongs to this phylum. The families of Na-Dene are ATHABASKAN-EYAK, HAIDA and TLINGIT. Niger-Congo (Niger-Kordofanian) [1100] is spoken all across sub-Saharan Africa, but its core is a belt from the Sahara to the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic to the Chari river in Chad. The rest Africa to the south and east is covered by Bantu, a family no more diverse than Romance or Chinese, which expanded from southeastern Nigeria about 300 BC. The branches of Niger-Congo are Mande (EASTERN MANDE and WESTERN MANDE), Kordofanian (HEIBAN, KATLA, RASHAD and TALODI), Atlantic (BAK, BIJAGO, CANGIN, EASTERN SENEGAL-GUINEA, LIMBA, MEL, NALU, SENEGAMBIAN and SUA), and Volta-Congo (ADAMWA-UBANGI, BENUE-CONGO, GUR, IJOID, KRU, and KWA) Nilo-Saharan [190] is spoken in disjointed patches of the African interior. It is the most controversial African phylum, and there is a good chance it is not real. The families that may or may not be Nilo-Saharan are BERTA, CENTRAL SUDANIC, EASTERN EASTERN SUDANIC, FUR, GUMUZ, KADUGLI, KOMAN, KULIAK, KUNAMA, MABAN, MEROITIC, NILOTIC, SAHARAN, SONGAY, and WESTERN EASTERN SUDANIC. Various pieces are sometimes treated as phyla under different names; Nilotic, Chari-Nile, Nilo-Hamitic, and Macro-Sudanic are some of the more common. Papuan [700] is the traditional name for the half of the languages of New Guinea and the surrounding islands that are not Austronesian. The classification of these languages has only recently become clear even at the family level; higher level classifications are still tentative. The extreme position is an Indo-Pacific phylum including them all, but even the consensus classification now assigns 2/3 of them to a single Trans-New Guinea Phylum. The Trans-New Guinea phylum includes ANGAN, BINANDERE, BORDER, BRAHMAN, BULAKA RIVER, CENTRAL AND SOUTH EASTERN NEW GUINEA, CENTRAL AND SOUTH NEW GUINEA, DANI-KWERBA, DEM, EAST NEW GUINEA HIGHLANDS, ELEMAN, FINISTERRE-HUON, GOGODALA-SUKI,INLAND GULF, ISUMRUD, JOSEPHSTAAL, KAURE, KAYAGAR, KOLOPOM, KUTUBUAN, MABUSO, MAIRASI-TANAH MERAH, MARIND, MEK, MOR, MORWAP, MOLOF, MUGIL, NIMBORAN, OKSAPMIN, PAUWASI, PAWAIAN, PIHOM, RAI COAST, SENAGI, SENTANI, TEBERAN, TIMOR-ALOR-PANTAR, TOFAMNA, TOR-LAKE PLAIN, TRANS FLY, TURAMA-KIKORIAN, USKU, WANNANG, WEST BOMBERAI, and WISSEL LAKES-KEMANDOGA. The West Papuan phylum includes AMBERBAKAN, BORAI-HATTAM, CENTRAL BIRD'S HEAD, NORTH HALMAHERA and WEST BIRD'S HEAD. The Sepik-Ramu phylum includes ANNABERG, ARAFUNDI, BIKSI, GAPUN, GOAM, GRASS, LEONHARD SCHULTZE, MIDDLE SEPIK, MONGOL-LANGAM, NOR-PONDO, RAM, RUBONI, SEPIK HILLS, TAMA, UPPER SEPIK, WAIBUK, YELLOW RIVER, and YUAT. The Torricelli phylum includes KOMBIO, MAIMAI, MARIENBERG, MONUMBO, URIM, WAPEI-PALEI, and WEST WAPEI. The East Papuan(Pacific) phylum includes EAST BOUGAINVILLE, NEW BRITAIN, REEF ISLANDS-SANTA CRUZ, WEST BOUGAINVILLE, and YELE-SOLOMONS. The Geelvink Bay phylum includes EAST GEELVINK BAY and YAVA. The rest of the Papuan languages belong to AMTO-MUSIAN, ARAI(LEFT MAY), AWERA, BUSA, EAST BIRD'S HEAD, KWOMTARI, NAGATMAN, PAUWI, POROME(KIBIRI), SKO, TAURAP, WARENBORI, and YURI. The most inclusive phyla also includes the otherwise isolated families ANDAMAN and TASMANIAN. Sino-Tibetan [250] is spoken in China, southeast Asia and the Himalayas. Within Sino-Tibetan there is a clear split between SINITIC, a family about as diverse as Romance consisting of the 'dialects' of Chinese, and the Tibeto-Burman branch containing the BODIC, KAREN, KUKI-NAGA, LOLO-BURMESE, MIRISH, QIANGIC and SAL families. Uralic-Yukaghir [24] has been spoken around the interior waterways of the Eurasian Arctic for at least 6000 years. Uralic Proper is spoken from the Baltic to the western side of the Urals, and was recognized as early as 1717. Yukaghir, consisting of a single living and a few extinct languages of eastern Siberia, has only recently been included in the phylum. The member families are FINNO-UGRIC, SAMOYEDIC and YUKAGHIR. Yeniseian (Yensei-Ostyak) [3] is spoken along the Yenisei and formerly the Ostyak rivers in Siberia. The only survivor is KET. _____________________________________________________________ Inventory of Families _____________________________________________________________ This section lists the most obvious (and hence least controversial) language groups. Languages listed as dialects usually share 80% or more of their vocabulary; many European languages normally called separate languages share more than that, so are listed below as dialects of each other. Generally 15-25% of the basic vocabulary of two languages of the same family will be cognate. This may not seem like a lot, but it is enough that these families are often noticed by ordinary speakers of the languages; unlike the higher level units which require careful examination to detect. The format used is: FAMILY NAME [number of languages: number of speakers] location major languages k indicates thousands, M millions, terms in parentheses are dialects or alternate names. The major languages listed are the three with the largest number of speakers (if there are that many) or all the languages with over a million speakers. ADAMWA-UBANGI [150:6.4M] northern Cameroon, the Central African Republic and northern Zaire. Gbaya, Ngbaka, Ngbandi, Zande. AINU [1:extinct?] northern Japan and Sakhalin. ALBANIAN [1:4M] southern Balkans. ALGONKIAN-RITWAN [30:135k] North America east of the Rockies and north of Tennessee, with two outliers in northern California. Blackfoot, Cree, Ojibwa. AMBERBAKAN [1:5k] northern Bird's Head, Irian Jaya. AMTO-MUSIAN [2:300] Upper Sepik river, near the Papuan border. Amto, Musan. ANATOLIAN [5:extinct] ancient Asia Minor. Hittite, Luwian, Lycian. ANDAMAN [12:500] the Andaman islands. Jarawa, Onge, Sentinel. ANGAN [12:65k] East Highlands, Morobe and Gulf provinces, Papua. Hamtai, Menya, Yagwoia. ANNABERG [3:6k] East Sepik - Madang border, Papua. Aiome, Anor, Rao. ARAFUNDI [2:700] East Sepik - Madang border, Papua. Alfendio, Meakambut. ARAI(LEFT MAY) [6:2k] between the Left May and Sepik rivers, Papua. Ama, Nimo, Rocky Peak(Yinibu). ARMENIAN [1:5M] southern Caucasus and Armenia. ARAWAKAN (Chapacura, Guahiba, Huari, Iranxi, Macro-Arawakan, Maipuran, Tiniguan, Uru-Chipaya) [120:350k] Belize to Paraguay and the Andes to coastal Brazil. Goajiro, Black Carib, and Campa. Note: Black Carib is a descendent of 'Island Carib' or Ineri, named for the ethnic Carib overlords of the islands. It is not related to the Carib languages. ARUTANI-SAPE [2:100] the Brazil-Venezuela border. Arutani(Auake), Sape(Kaliana). ASLIAN(MALACCAN)[15:56k] mainland Malaysia, primarily in the interior. Semai, Semang, Temiar. Note Jakun, which is included in this family in older sources, is not actually related. ATAYALIC [2:66k] northwestern Taiwan prior to the arrival of the Chinese. Atayal, Taroko(Sediq). ATHABASKAN-EYAK [30:200k] Alaska, western Canada, Arizona, New Mexico, and extinct languages of the Oregon and northern California coasts. Apache, Chipewyan, Navajo. AWERA [3:300] Waropen Bawah, Irian Jaya. Awera, Rasawa, Saponi. BAK [5:900k] the West African coast between the Gambia and Cacheu rivers. Balanta, Jola Fogny(Diola, Dyula), Mandyak. BALTIC [2:5M] southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Latvian, Lithuanian. BASQUE(EUZKADI) [1:2M] the western Pyrennes on the border of France and Spain. BENUE-CONGO [700:140M] can be split roughly in half. Half the languages are spoken in northern and western Cameroon, southern Nigeria, and slightly over the border into Benin. Several have over a million speakers: Edo(Benin, Bini), Efik(Calabar), Ibibio, Idoma, Igala, Igbo(Ibo), Nupe, Tiv, Yemba-Ngwe-Bamileke, and Yoruba(Bunu, Oyo) The other half are the Narrow Bantu dialect cline, stretching south and east across the rest of Africa. Those with over a million speakers are: Bemba, Beti(Bebele, Bulu, Ewondo, Fang, Mengisa, Yaunde), Chagga, Chokwe(Ciokwe), Gogo(Bena, Hehe), Haya, Kikuyu(Gikuyu), Kamba, Kimbundu(Luanda, Lunda, North Mbundu), Kisii(Guzii), Kongo, Lomwe (West Makua), Luba-Kasai(Chiluba, Luba, Luva, Lulua), Luba-Shaba(Kiluba) Luba-Songe, Luganda(Ganda), Luvale(Lwena), Luyia(Luhya), Makonde, Makua(Metto), Meru, Mongo(Ngando, Nkundu), Nandi(Konzo), Ngala(Lingala, Losengo), Nguni(siSwati, Swazi, Xhosa, Zimbabwe Ndebele, Zulu), Nyakusa(Ngonda), Nyamwezi-Sukuma, Nyanja(Chewa, Malawi), Nyankole(Chiga, Kiga, Nkole, Nyankore, Nyoro, Toro), Ruanda(Ha, Rundi, Rwanda), Sena-Sare, Shona(Manyika, Ndau), Soga, Swahili, Tetela(Kela, Kusu, Nkutu, Yela), Tonga(Zambezi), Tsonga(Ronga, Tswa), Tswana(Lozi, Ndebele(Transvaal), Pedi, Sotho), Tumbuka, Umbundu(South Mbundu) and Yao. BERBER(SHLH) [30:11M] northwestern Africa. Kabyle, Shawiya, Tachelhit(Shilha), Tamazheq(Tamajeq, Tahoua, Tuareg), Tamazight, Tarifit(Riff). BERTA [1:50k] between the Blue Nile and Dabus, Ethiopia-Sudan border. BIJAGO [1:20k] islands off the Guinea Bissayan coast. BIKSI [1:200] west of the Sepik, in easternmost Irian Jaya. BINANDERE [16:65k] northwestern coast of the tail of New Guinea. Hunjara, Notu, Orokaiva. BIRALE [1:20] southwestern Ethiopia. BODIC(TIBETAN-HIMALAYISH) [70:7M] Tibet and the Himalayas. Amdo(Northeast Tibetan), Bodo, Khams(Eastern Tibetan), Newari. BORAI-HATTAM [2:9k] northeastern central Bird's Head, Irian Jaya. Borai(Mansim), Hattam. BORDER [12:13k] northern border of Papua and Irian Jaya. Amanab, Kilmeri, Waris. BOUGAINVILLE [15:50k] Bougainville and Shortland islands. Halia, Nehan, Teop. BRAHMAN [4:1100] Madang province, northeast Papua. Biyom, Isabi, Tauya. BRAHUI [1:300k] Baluchistan. BULAKA RIVER [2:500] Irian Jaya, opposite Frederik Hendrik island. Maklew, Yelmek. BUNABAN [2:100] upper Fitzroy river, Western Australia. Bunaba, Kuniyandi. BURARRAN [4:800] Maninguida, Northern Territory, Australia. Burarra, Djeebbana(Kunabidji), Nakara. BURUSHASKI [1:50k] northern India. BUSA [1:300] interior West Sepik province, Papua. CADDOAN [5:2k] the Great Plains south of the Missouri. Arikara, Caddo, Pawnee. CAHUAPANA [2:10k] northern Peru. Chayahuita, Jebero(Hivaro). CAMSA (Coche) [1:4k] Sibundoy valley, Colombia. CANGIN [5:90k] coastal central Senegal. Ndut, Non, Safen. CANICHANA [1:25] northeastern Bolivia, on the Brazilian border. CELTIC [7:2.5M] Britanny and the British Isles. Breton, Gaelic(Irish), Welsh. CENTRAL AND SOUTH EASTERN NEW GUINEA [36:74k] the tail of Papua. Fuyuge, Kunimaipa, Tauade. CENTRAL AND SOUTH NEW GUINEA[55:155k] central interior and southwest coast. Central Asmat, Ngalum, Northern Kati. CENTRAL BIRD'S HEAD [4:24k] northern and central Bird's Head, Irian Jaya. Brat, Karon Dori, Karon Pantai. CENTRAL SUDANIC [60:5M] primarily Sudan, with outliers to the northwest. Lendu, Lugbara(Aringa, Ma'di), Mangbetu. CHADIC [120:30M] interior sub-Saharan Africa centered on Lake Chad. Central Margi, Hausa, Higi. CHIMAKUAN [2:20] Olympic peninsula in Washington state. Quileute. CHOISEUL [4:10k] Choiseul island in the Solomon islands. Babatana, Vaghua, Varisi. CHUKCHI-KAMCHATKAN [5:16k] the Chukchi and Kamchatka peninsulas, Siberia. Alutor, Chukot, Koryak. COAHUILTECAN-COMECRUDO [5:extinct] lower Rio Grande, Texas and Mexico. CUITLATEC [1:extinct] Guerrero state, Mexico. CUSHTIC [50:12M] western Sudan, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Hadiyya, Maay, Oromo(Galla, Gallinya), Sidamo, Somali. CUYAUBABA [1:25] Beni region, Venezuela. DAGESTANI [30:1.5M] the northeastern Caucasus mountains. Avar(Dagestani), Dargwa, Lezgi. DALY [15:1500] Daly river, Northern Territory, Australia. Marithiel(Brinken), Murrinh-Patha (Murinbada), Ngakikurungkurr. DANI-KWERBA [11:231k] interior central and north central coastal Irian Jaya. Grand Valley Dani, Western Dani, Yaly. DEM [1:500] north of the Jamo river, Irian Jaya highlands. DJAMINDJUNGAN [2:30] south of the Upper Daly river, Northern Territory, Australia. Djamindjung, Nungali. DJERAGAN [5:400] Kimberley region, Western Australia. Kadjerawang, Kitja, Miriwung. DRAVIDIAN [25:140M] southern India. Gondi, Kannada(Kanarese), Kurux (Kurukh, Oraon) Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Tulu. EAST BIRD'S HEAD [3:17k] eastern Vogelkop peninsula, Irian Jaya. Mantion, Meax, Meninggo. EAST BOUGAINVILLE [4:35k] southeastern half of Bougainville Island. Buin, Nagovisi, Siwai. EAST FORMOSAN (TSOUIC, PAIWANIC) [12:240k] the southern half and the eastern and northern coasts of Taiwan prior to the arrival of the Chinese. Amis, Bunun, Paiwan. EAST GEELVINK BAY [6:4k] east Geelvink shore and east to the Mamberamo river, northern Irian Jaya. Baropasi, Bauzi, Tarunggarr EAST NEW GUINEA HIGHLANDS [42:963k] east central New Guinea. Chimbu, Enga, Hagen. EASTERN EASTERN SUDANIC(BAREA, DIDINGA-MURLE, EAST JEBEL, NERA, NUBIAN, SURMA, TABAI) [30:1.8M] from the Nile and Nuba hills east to Eritrea and Ethiopia. Kenuzi-Dongala(Nile Nubian), Mahas-Fiadidja(Northern Nubian), Murle. EASTERN MANDE [15:800k] small patches from Liberia east to Nigeria. Bisa, Dan(Gio), Kweni(Guro). EASTERN OTO-MANGUEAN(Amusgo-Mistekan, Popolokan-Sapotekan) [90:1M] southern central Mexico. Mazatec, Mixtec, Zapotec. EASTERN SENEGAL-GUINEA [8:85k] coastal Guinea Bissau and northern Gambia. Bainouk, Basari, Biafada. EGYPTIAN [1:extinct] the Nile valley. Ancient Egyptian, Coptic. ELAMITE [?:extinct] Zagros mountains, down to the Persian Gulf. ELEMAN [7:42k] eastern coast of Gulf province, Papua. Orokolo, Puarari, Toaripi. ENINDILYAKWA [1:1000] Groote Eylandt, off Northern Territory Australia. ESKIMO-ALEUT [3:90k] Greenland, arctic North America and eastern Siberia. Aleut, Inuit, Yupik. FINISTERRE-HUON [67:137k] Huon peninsula, eastern New Guinea. Komba, Selepit, Timbe. FINNO-UGRIC [19:22M] eastern Baltic, north central Asia and Hungary. Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Mari(Cheremis), Mordvin(Erzya), Saami(Lapp), Udmurt(Komi, Votyak, Zyrian). FUR [2:515k] Darfur province of western Sudan. Amdang(Biltine, Mimi), Fur. GAPUN [1:75] near the mouth of the Sepik river, Papua. GERMANIC [8:450M] northwestern Europe, and ex-colonies worldwide. Dutch(Afrikaans Flemish Plautdietsch), English, Frisian, German(Bavarian Franconian-Luxembourgeois High German Pennsylvania Dutch Schwytzerdutsch Standard German Yiddish), Icelandic (Faeroese), Scandinavian (Danish Norwegian Swedish). GILYAK(NIVKH) [1:400] Sakhalin island, off eastern Siberia. GOAM [11:8k] East Sepik - Madang province border, Papua. Andarum, Igon, Tangu. GOGODALA-SUKI [3:12k] north of the lower Fly river, Papua. Ari-Waruna, Gogodala, Suki. GRASS [4:9k] East Sepik - Madang province border, Papua. Adjora, Banaro, Kambot. GREEK [2:10M] southern Balkans, Aegean islands, Cyprus. Greek, Tsakonian. GUMUZ(BEGA) [1:90k] Ethiopia-Sudan border. GUR [70:11M] Burkina Faso, and northern Benin Togo Ghana and Ivory Coast. Dagaari(Birifor), Dogon, Gurene, Moore(Mossi), Senari Senufo(Cebaara). HAIDA [1:500] the Queen Charlotte Islands, off western Canada. HATSA (HADZA) [1:200] Tanzania, southeast of Lake Victoria. HEIBAN [10:100k] Southern Kordofan province of Sudan. Koalib(Rere), Moro-Tira, Utoro. HESPERONIAN (WESTERN MALAYOPOLYNESIAN) [500:180M] Indonesia, Philipines, Madagascar, Borneo, Malay, Hainan island and central Vietnam. Aceh(Achinese, Atjeh), Balinese, Batak(Angkola, Mandailing, and Toba Batak), Bicolano(Bikol), Bugis(Buginese, Rappang), Cebuano(Sebuano, Visayan), Dari Batak, Gorontalo, Hiligaynon(Ilonggo), Iban(Sea Dayak), Ibanag, Ilocano, Javanese, Lampung, Madurese, Magindanaon, Malagasay, Maranao, Makassar, Malay(Banjar, Brunei, Indonesian, Jambi Malay, Lubu, Palembang, Pasemah-Serawai, Standard Malay), Minang(Minangkabau), Mongondow, Ngaju Dayak, Pampangan(Kapampangan), Pangasinan, Pattani, Rejang, Sasak(Lombok), Simalungan Batak(Timur), Sunda, Tagalog(Pilipino), Toraja-Sa'dan, Waray(Samaran, Samar-Leyte, Waray-waray). HOKAN (NUCLEAR HOKAN, Chumash, Chimariko, Esselen, Karok, Palainihan, Pomo, Salinan, Seri, Shasta, Tequistlatec, Washo, Yana, Yuman) [25:20k] California, Baja and the desert Southwest. Mojave, Tequistlatec, Upland Yuman. IJOID [8:1.8M] the delta of the Niger river. Central Western Ijo(Biseni, Okodia, Oruma), Kalabari, Okrika. INDIC [40:660M] the Indian subcontinent and Himalayas. Assamese, Bengali (Chittagong, Dhaka), Bhili(Wagdi), Bihari(Angika, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili, Sadani), Central Pahari(Garhwali, Kumanuni), Dogri-Kangri, Eastern Hindi (Awadhi, Bagheli, Bundeli, Chhatisgarhi), Eastern Rajasthani (Harauti, Jaipuri), Gujarati, Literary Hindi-Urdu, Kashmiri, Konkani, Marathi, Nepali, North Lahndi(Dhanni, Hindko, Peshwari) Oriya (Bhatri), Punjabi, Rajasthani(Bagri, Marwari, Mewari), Romani, Sindhi (Kachchhi), Sinhalese(Divehi), Siraiki(South Lahndi), Western Hindi (Braj, Haryanvi, Kannauji, Kauravi), Western Pahari(Baghati, Chameali-Handuri, Mandeali, Pangwali, Sirmauri). INLAND GULF [5:1k] Turama river area, Gulf province, Papua. Ipiko, Minanibi, Tao-Suamato. IRANIAN [20:62M] south central Asia. Baluchi, Kurdish(Kurdi, Kurmanji), Mazanderani(Gilaki), Osetin(Ossetian), Pashto, Persian(Dari, Farsi, Hazaragi, Luri, Tajiki, Tati). IROQUOIAN [15:50k] the Great Lakes, St Lawrence, Virgina and the Carolinas. Cayuga, Cherokee, Mohawk. ISUMRUD [5:12k] Madang province, northeast Papua. Bunabun, Dimir, Waskia. ITALIC [10:550M] southern Europe, and ex-colonies worldwide. Catalan(Valencian), Iberian(Asturian, Portuguese(Galician), Spanish), Rhaeto-Romance(Friulian, Ladin), Rumanian(Moldovan), Sardinian, West Romance(Cajun, French, French Creole, Italian, Ligurian-Lombardy- Savoy-Genoese, Neapolitan(Calibrese), Occitian(Provencal, Languedoc), Venetian). JAPANESE-RYUKYUAN [4:126M] the Japanese islands. Central Okinawan, Japanese, Sakishima. JICAQUE(Tol) [1:300] northwestern Honduras. JIVAROAN (Jibaro-Kandoshi) [10:70k] southern Ecuador and northern Peru. Aguaruna, Huambisa, Shuar. JOSEPHSTAAL [7:7k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. Ikundun, Katiati, Pondoma. JU (!XU~, ZHUN) [6:20k] Namibia and southern Angola. Akhoe, !kung-!xu, #au.||ei. KADAI [15:1.5M] Guangxi, northern Vietnam, and Hainan island. Hlai(Li), Lingao, Ngao Fon. KADUGLI [9:90k] Southern Kordofan province of Sudan. Krongo(Tabanya), Miri(Juwa, Barra), Talla(Kadugli). KAKUDJU [1:6] western Arnhem Land, Australia. KAM-SUI [8:2.7M] Kweichow-Hunan-Guangxi border area in China. Dong(Kam), Mulam, Sui. KAIRIRI(Ichikile, Shukuru, Xuco) [2?:extinct] Alagoas region of Brazil. KARAWA [1:200] Borroloola, Northern Territory, Australia. KAREN [10:4M] Burma and western Thailand. P'ao(Black Karen), Pwo(White Karen, Pholong, Pho), Sgaw(Yang Khao). KARTVELIAN [4:5M] southern Caucasus mountains. Georgian, Mingrelian, Svan. KATLA [2:12k] Southern Kordofan province of Sudan. Kalak, Lomorik. KATUKINAN [4:700] eastern Brazil. Kanamari, Katawixi, Tshom-Djapa. KAURE [5:3k] eastern Lake plain, Irian Jaya. Kaure, Marau, Sause. KAYAGAR [3:7k] Cook and Gondu rivers, southeastern Irian Jaya. Kaugat, Kaygir, Tamagano. KECHUAMARA (Aymara, Quechua) [7:11M] Peru, Ecuador, western Boliva and northern Argentina. Cajamarca Quechua(Quechua IIA), Central Aymara, Huanuco Quechua(Quechua I, Quechua B), Quichua (Quechua IIB, Ecuadoran Q, Highland Q), Southern Quechua (Quechua IIC, Bolivian Q, Ayaucho Q, Cuzco Q). KERESAN [2:8k] north central New Mexico. East Keres, West Keres. KET [1:700] the central Yenisey river, Siberia. KHWE-KOVAB [15:200k] southwestern Africa. Nama, San, Xun(!hukwe). KIOWA-TANOAN [5:11k] New Mexico and Oklahoma. Jemez(Towa), Tewa, Tiwa. KOAYA [1:10] Rondonia, Brazil. KOLOPOM [3:3k] Frederik Hendrik (Kolopom) island, Irian Jaya. Kimaghama, Ndom, Riantana. KOMAN [6:40k] Ethiopia-Sudan border. Koma, Shita, Uduk. KOMBIO [6:30k] Torricelli range and northward, Sepik provinces, Papua. Kombio, Lou(Torricelli), Wom. KOREAN [1:70M] Korea and adjacent China. KRU [20:1.4M] Liberia and southwestern Cote d'Ivoire. Bassa, Bete, Guere. KUKI-NAGA [30:3.5M] northeastern India, eastern Bangladesh and Burma. Central Chin, Meithei(Manipuri), Mizo. KULIAK(NYANGIA, TEUSO) [4:10k] eastern Uganda. Ik, Nyangi, Soo. KUNAMA [1:70k] western Eritrea and into Sudan. KUNGARKANY [1:extinct] Darwin river, Northern Territory, Australia. KUNWINGKU [15:1400] Arnhem land, Northern Australia. Kunwingku, Mgalkbun, Nungkbuyu. KUTENAI [1:300] Montana, Idaho and British Columbia. KUTUBUAN [4:4k] middle Kikori river, interior New Guinea. Fasu, Foe, Namumi. KWA(West Kwa) [80:20M] the Nyo and Togo languages of southern Benin, Togo, Ghana and the eastern Ivory Coast. Akan(Abron, Ashante, Brong, Fante, Twi), Bia(Anyi, Baule), Ewe, Fon-Gbe, Ga-Adangme-Krobo. KWADI [1:15k] southern Angola. KWOMTARI [5:3k] northeastern West Sepik province, Papua. Biaka, Fas(Bembi), Kwomtari. LARAKIYAN [2:7] south of the Daly river, Northern Territory, Australia. Larakia, Wulna. LENCA [2:25] Honduras and El Salvador. LEONHARD SCHULTZE [6:750] Leonhard Schultze river, East Sepik, Papua. Pai, Tuwari, Walio. LIMBA [2:340k] northwestern Sierra Leone. West Limba(Sela, Tamiso, Tonka), Yimba(East Limba). LOLO-BURMESE [40:40M] Burma, and the hills of Yunnan, northern Thailand, Laos and Vietnam. Arakanese, Burmese, Hani, Lisu, Sichuan Yi(Lolo, Northern Yi, Nosu, Ichia), Western Yi, Yangbye, Yunan Yi(Gni, Nosu, Southern Yi). LULE-VILELA [2:extinct?] northern Argentina. Vilela may have a few speakers. MABAN [7:650k] Wadai region of northern Chad. Maba, Marfa, Masalit. MABUSO [29:23k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. Amele, Garuh, Girawa. MACRO-CARIB (Andoque, Carib, Peba-Yagua, Witotoan) [50:55k] South America north of the Amazon. Kalihna(Carib, Galibi), Pemon, Yecuana (Cunuama, Maquiritai). MACRO-CHIBCHAN (Antioquia, Aruak, Chibcha, Cofan, Cuna, Guayan, Motilon, Paya, Rama, Talamanca) [20:105k] southern Central and northern South America. Bribri-Cabecur, Guaymi, San Blas Cuna. MACRO-GE (Bororo, Chiquito, Eriksbatsa, Ge, Kaingan, Kamakan, Mashakali, Puri, Yabuti) [30:40k] eastern South America, primarily Brazil. Chiquitano, Kaingang, Xavante(Chavante). MACRO-KALEMBRI-TARUMA [2:extinct] Bahia and Amazonas, Brazil. MACRO-WAIKURAN (Charruan, Mascoian, Mataco-Guaicura) [20:90k] central Paraguay and northern Argentina. Chulupi, Lengua, Wichi Lhamtes Vejoz. MACU [1:10] Brazil near the Guyanas border. MAIMAI [6:5k] Torricelli range and northward, Sepik provinces Papua. Beli, Heyo, Yahang. MAIRASI-TANAH MERAH [3:4k] most of the neck of Irian Jaya. Mairasi, Semimi, Sumeri (Tanah Merah). MAISAN [1:2k] Collingwood bay coast, New Guinea tail tip, Papua. MAKU'-PUINAVE [10:5k] northwestern Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela. Hupde Maku, Puinave, Yahup Maku. MANGERRIAN [3:10] Alligator river area of Northern Territory, Australia. Erre, Mangerr, Urningangk. MARAN [4:200] the Rose and Roper rivers, Northern Territory, Australia. Alawa, Mara, Wandarang. MARIENBERG [7:6k] coastal Sepik provinces, Papua. Buna, Bungan, Urimo. MARIND [6:20k] south of the Digul (Irian Jaya) and west of the Strickland (Papua) rivers. Boazi, Marind, Yaquy. MAYAN [30:4M] Central America, the Yucatan and south to the Pacific. Cakchiquel, Kechi, Mam, Quiche, Tzotzil, Yucatec(Maya). MBUGU [1:30k] eastern Tanzania. MEK [8:50k] north central eastern highlands, Irian Jaya. Goliath, Ketengban, Nalca. MEL [10:2M] centered in Sierra Leone. Kisi, Sherbro, Temne(Theme). MEROITIC [1:extinct] known from inscriptions in Sudan. MIAO [3:6.5M] scattered pockets in southern China and adjacent regions. Northern Hmong(Xiangxi Miao), Western Hmong (Chuanqiandian Miao, Hua Miao, Njua Miao), White Miao (Hmong Daw). MICRONESIAN [20:170k] the Micronesian islands in the central Pacific. Ikiribati(Gilbertese), Marshallese, Truk. MIDDLE SEPIK [13:108k] eastern East Sepik province, Papua. Abelam, Boiken, Kwanga. MIJE-SOKEAN(MIXE-ZOQUE) [8:146k] Oaxaca and adjacent states. Chiapas Zoque, Guichicovi Mixe, Sierra Popoluca. MINKIN [1:10] Borroloola area, Northern Territory, Australia. MIRISH (CENTRAL T-B) [20:1M] Arunchal Pradesh and adjoining Tibet. Adi(Abor), Mising(Miri), Nishi-Bangni-Api Tani-Dafla. MISUMALPAN [5:170k] Honduras and Nicaragua. Moskito, Sumo. MOBIMA(Movima) [1:2k] Venezuela. MOLOF [1:200] south of the Pai river, Irian Jaya, near the Papuan border. MOLUCCAN (CENTRAL MALAYOPOLYNESIAN) [150:4.4M] Moluccas and Lesser Sundas. Bima, Manggarai, Timor(Atoni). MON-KHMER [70:15M] Assam, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and southern China. Khasi, Khmer, Khmu, Kuy(Suay), Mon(Pegu), Northern Khmer(Surin), Pale Palaung, Wa(Parauk). MONGOL-LANGAM [3:1400] middle Yuat river, East Sepik province, Papua. Langam, Mongol, Yaul. MONGOLIAN [6:3M] central Asia. Buriat, Kalmyk, Mongolian(Halh, Khalkha, Khorcin, Periperhal Mongolian). MONUMBO [2:1k] northwestern coastal Madang province, Papua. Lilau, Momumbo. MOR [1:60] northeast coast of Bomberai peninsula, west Irian Jaya. MORWAP [1:300] northern Irian Jaya, near the Papuan border. MOSETEN(Tsimane, Chimane) [1:6k] Bolivia-Chile border. MUGIL [1:2k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. MUNICHE [1:200] Parnapura river valley, Peru. MUNDA [15:8M] northeast India from Bangladesh south into Orissa. Ho, Mundari, Santali. MURA [2:150] Amazonas state, Brazil. Mura-Piraha. MUSKOGEAN [5:24k] southeastern US and Oklahoma. Choctaw-Chickasaw, Mikasuki, Muskogee(Creek, Seminole). NALU [1:6k] around the Cacine in southern Guinea-Bissau. NAGATMAN [1:500] interior West Sepik province, Papua. NAMBIQUARAN [5:1700] Mato Grosso region of Brazil. Manairisu, Nambikuara, Sarare. NAX(NAKH) [2:1.2M] the north central Caucasus mountains. Bats, Chechen-Ingush. NEHALI [1:5000] northwestern India, mainly Nimar district. NEW BRITAIN [9:9k] northeastern New Britain, with outliers in western New Britain and New Ireland. Baining, Kol, Sulka. NEW CALEDONIAN [30:30k] New Caledonia. Ajie, Numee, Xaracuu. NEW GEORGIAN [8:20k] New Georgia region in the Solomon islands Lungga, Marovo, Roviana. NICOBARESE [6:19k] the Nicobar Islands. Car Nicobarese, Central Nicobarese, Shom Peng. NILOTIC(NILO-HAMITIC) [50:15M] centered around the upper Niles. Alur, Dinka, Kalenjin(Nandi), Lango, Luo, Maasai, Nuer, Teso. NIMBORAN [3:9k] coastal northeast Irian Jaya, west of Lake Sentani. Kemtuk, Mekwei, Nimboran. NOR-PONDO(LOWER SEPIK) [6:11k] mouth of the Sepik river, Papua. Angoram, Murik, Karawari. NORTH ANDEAN [5:extinct] northern Andes mountains. Catacao, Cholona, Culli, Leco, Sec. NORTH HALMAHERA [11:160k] Morontai and northern half of Halmahera islands. Ternate, Tidore, Tobelu. NURISTANI [6:30k] the Hindu Kush of the Himalayas. Ashkan, Kamviri, Waigali. NYULNYULAN [8:150] Broom headland, Western Australia. Baadi, Nyigina, Nyulnyul. OCEANIC(HEONESIAN) [320:1.7M] Papua and most of the Pacific islands to the east, including New Zealand. East Polynesian(Hawaiian, Maori, Marquesian, Rapanui, Raratongan and Tahitian), Fijian, Samoan. OKSAPMIN [1:7k] Strickland headwaters, Papua. OMOTIC(WESTERN CUSHTIC) [35:1M] western Ethiopia and northern Kenya. Kafa, Ometo(Wolaytta, Walamo), Yemsa. PAEZAN (Andaqui, Barbacoa, Betoi, Chimu, Choco, Hiraharan, Huarpe, Itonama, Kunza, Timucua, Warao) [20:120k] northern Ecuador, western Colombia and Panama, with an extinct outlier in Florida. Catio, Cuaiquer, Paez. PAMA-NYUNGAN [176:15k] Australia except the northwestern highlands. Mabuyag (Kala Yagaw Ya), Walpiri, Western Desert Language(Kardutjara, Pitjantjatjara, Wati). PANKARARU [1:extinct] Alagoas region of Brazil. PANO-TACANAN [35:30k] the Amazon headwaters. Cashinahua, Shipibo-Conibo, Tacana. PAUWASI [4:1500] Pauwasi headwaters, northeastern border of Irian Jaya. Dubu, Emumu, Yafi. PAUWI [1:1000] lower Mamberamo river, northern Irian Jaya. PAWAIAN [1:3k] eastern Gulf province, south central Papua. PENUTIAN (Alsean, Cayuse, Chinook, Coos, Kalapuya, Klamath-Modoc, Maidu, Miwok-Constanoan, Molale, Sahaptin, Takelma, Tsimshian, Wintun, Yakonan, Yokuts) [25:15k] Pacific coast from California to Alaska. Nass-Gitksian(Niska), Tsimshian, Yakima(Sahaptin). PIHOM [22:16k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. Saki, Tani, Ulingan. POROME(KIBIRI) [1:1k] Kikori delta, Gulf province, Papua. PULCHE(Guennaken) [1:extinct] between the Negro and Chubut rivers, Argentina. QIANGIC [15:700k] Yunnan province. Jiarong, Naxi, South Qiang. RAI COAST [29:15k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. Sumau, Urigina, Usino. RAM [3:1k] East Sepik province, Papua. Autu, Bouye, Karawa. RASHAD [2:36k] Southern Kordofan province of Sudan. Tagoi, Tegali. REEF ISLANDS-SANTA CRUZ [4:7k] Santa Cruz, and nearby small islands. Aiwo, Northern Santa Cruz, Southwestern Santa Cruz. RUBONI [8:11k] East Sepik - Madang border, Papua. Gamei, Giri, Mikarew. SAHARAN [8:4M] south central Sahara desert. Daza(Tebu, Teda), Kanuri, Zaghwa. SAL (BARIC, BODO-GARO-KONYAK, KACHINIC) [30:3M] northeastern India and northern Burma. Boro, Garo, Jingpho(Jinghpaw, Kachin). SALISHAN [25:13k] North American Pacific Northwest. Kalispel-Flathead, Okanagan, Shuswap. SALIVAN [2:14k] south central Venezuela. Piaroa, Saliba. SAMOYEDIC [4:35k] northern Siberia. Nenets(Yurak), Nganasan, Selkup. SANDWE [1:70k] Tanzania. SARMI-YOTAFA [6:7k] northeastern Irian Jaya. Ormu, Tarpia, Tobahi. SEMITIC [20:120M] the Near East, Arabia and Ethiopia. Amharic, Eastern Arabic (Delta, Egyptian, Gulf, Hijazi, Levantine, Mesopotamian, Peninsular Arabic, Southern Arabian Arabic, Yemeni), Hebrew, Maltese, Modern Standard Arabic, Sudanic Arabic(Sa'idi, Shuwa (Chadian Arabic), Sudanese, Waday-Darfour), Tigrinya, Western Arabic (Hassinaiyya, Hilali, Libyan, Maghrebi, Ma'qili, Maure, Sulayami, Tunisian). SENAGI [2:4k] northern interior, on the Papua-Irian Jaya border. Anggor, Dera. SENEGAMBIAN [3:15M] along the coast of West Africa (Maruitania to Liberia). Fula, Serere(Sine), Wolof. SENTANI [4:11k] Lake Sentani region, northeastern Irian Jaya. Nafri, Sentani, Tanahmera. SEPIK HILLS [15:7k] northwestern Papua. Alamblak, Hewa, Kapriman. SINITIC [9:1000M] primarily of China and Taiwan. Bai(Pai), Hakka(Ke, Kejia), Kan(Gan), Mandarin(Beijinghua, Guoyu, Kungming, Liaodong, Nanjing, Pei, Putonghua, Shangtung, Wuzhou, Zhili), Min Nan(Fujian, Hokkien, Kwangtung, South Min, Taiwanese), Min Pei(Fuzhou, North Min, Xinghua), Wu(Hangzhou, Jinhua, Shanghai), Xiang(Hsiang, Hunan), Yue(Cantonese, Yueh). SIOUAN-CATAWBA [15:40k] central North America, and the Carolinas. Crow, Dakota, Lakota. SKO [8:7k] northern coastal border of Papua and Irian Jaya. Rawo, Vanimo, Warapu(Varofu). SLAVIC [15:280M] eastern Europe and northern Asia. Czech-Slovak, East Slavic(Belorussian, Ukranian), Polish, Russian, Slovene, South Slavic(Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian). SONGAY [4:4M] middle Niger valley and northward. Dendi, Dyerma, Songhai. SOUTH ANDEAN (Alacalufan, Araucanian, Chon, Patagonian) [8:440k] southern Chile, Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Kawasquar, Mapudungun-Huitliche, Tehuelche. SOUTH HALMAHERA-GEELVINK-NORTHEAST NEW GUINEA [45:140k] Irian Jaya and the islands in the Malaku region of Indonesia. Biak, East Makian, Sawai. SUA(Masoanka) [1:11k] Guinea-Bissau. SUMERIAN [1:extinct] an ancient language of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. SUBTIABA-TLAPENEC[2:45k] Guerrero, Mexico and Pacific Nicaragua. Tlapanec. TA'A (#HUNA) [2:1500] southern Kalihari desert. NG|amani, #hua-Owani. TAI(DAI) [40:55M] Indochina, southern China, Thailand and northern Burma. Bouyei(Puyi), Dai(Chinese Tai), Isan(Northeastern Tai), Lao, Myang(Lan'na, Mu'ang, Northern Tai), Nung, Shan, Tak Bai(Dambro, Southern Tai, Thai Malay), Thai(Siamese), Tho(Tay), Zhongjia(Chuang, North Zhuang), Zhuang(Bu-Baan, Pu-Nong, South Zhuang). TALODI [6:20k] Southern Kordofan province of Sudan. Ngile(Daloka, Dengebu, Massakin), Tegem(Lafofa), Tocho. TAMA [5:5k] Lower Sepik and Wagasu rivers, northwestern Papua. Kalou, Mayo, Mehek. TARASCAN [1:60k] Michoacan region of Mexico. TAURAP [1:500] middle Mamberamo river, northern Irian Jaya. TEBERAN [2:8k] interior Gulf province, south central Papua. Dadibi, Podapa. TICUNA-YURI [2:25k] northeastern Amazon headwaters. TIMOR-ALOR-PANTAR [18:189k] Alor, Pantar, the southern half of Kisar and part of south central and the northeastern tip of Timor island. Abui, Bunak, Fataluko. TIMOTE(Cuica-Timote) [5:extinct] Venezuelan highlands. TIWIAN [1:1400] Bathurst and Melville Islands, off northern Australia. TLINGIT [1:2k] the Alaskan panhandle. TOCHARIAN [2:extinct] ancient western China. Tocharian A, Tocharian B. TOFAMNA [1:100] east of Nawa river, northeastern Irian Jaya. TOR-LAKE PLAIN [20:5k] western Lake plain, north central Irian Jaya. Berik, Turu, Uria. TOTONAC [10:250k] east central Mexico. Coyutla Totonac, Papantla Totonac, Sierra Totonac. TRANS FLY [26:35k] Fly delta, and all of Papua south of the Fly river. Bamu Kiwai, Northeastern Kiwai, Southern Kiwai. TRUMAI [1:70] Mato Grosso, Brazil. TUKANOAN [25:16k] southern Colombia. Cubeo, Desano, Tukano. TUNGUS [15:80k] Manchuria and Siberia. Even, Evenki(Tungus), Manchu-Xibe(Sibo). TUPI (Kapishana-Tupi-Guarani) [70:3.5M] the South Amazon, southern coastal Brazil and Paraguay and southeast to the coast. Chiriguano(Izoceno), Cocama-Cocamilla, Paraguayan Guaranai. TURAMA-KIKORIAN [4:2k] lower Kikori river, Gulf province, Papua. Ikobi, Kairi, Omati. TURKIC [6:80M] Anatolia and central Asia. Central Turkic(Bashkir, Kazahk, Tatar), Chuvash, Eastern Turkic (Uighur, Uzbek), Northern Turkic(Kirghiz, Khakas, Tuva), Southern Turkic(Azerbaijani, Turkish, Turkmen), Yakut. TUSHA [1:extinct] Bahia, Brazil. UPPER SEPIK [5:9k] Upper Sepik and Green rivers, Papuan border. Abau, Amal, Iwam. URARINA-WAORANI(Itucali-Sabela, Simacu) [3:3k] Peru, only Waorani survives. URIM [1:2k] Torricelli range and northward, Sepik provinces, Papua. USKU [1:20] south of the Pauwasi river, northeastern Irian Jaya. VIET-MUONG [10:70M] along the Vietnam coast and in central Vietnam and Laos. Muong, Nguon, Vietnamese. WAIBUK [4:3k] southwestern Madang province, Papua. Pinai, Waibuk, Wapi. WAKASHAN [8:4k] Vancouver island, northwestern Washington and southwestern British Columbia. Heiltsuk, Kwakiutl, Nootka. WANNANG [5:3k] Madang province, northeastern Papua. Angaua, Emerum, Musak. WAPEI-PALEI [20:32k] Torricelli range and northward, Sepik provinces Papua. Au, Olo, Urat. WARENBORI [1:300] Mamberamo delta, northern Irian Jaya. WARPE [2:extinct] west of the upper Colorado river, Argentina and Chile. Alentiyac, Millcayac. WAVE(HUAVE) [1:15k] southeastern Oaxaca, Mexico. WEST BARKLEY [3:80] interior Northern Territory, Australia. Djingili, Ngarndji, Wambaya. WEST BIRD'S HEAD [7:20k] western tip of Irian Jaya and eastern Salawah. Moi, Seget, Tehit. WEST BOMBERAI [3:6k] northwestern part of the Bomberai peninsula, and western Irian Jaya. Baham, Iha, Karas. WEST BOUGAINVILLE [4:8k] central Bougainville island. Eivo, Konua(Kunua), Rotokas. WEST WAPEI [3:3k] Torricelli range and northward, Sepik provinces Papua. One, Seta, Seti. WESTERN CAUCASIAN [5:780k] northwestern Caucasus mountains. Abaza, Abkhaz, Circassian(Adyghe-Kabardian). WESTERN EASTERN SUDANIC(DAJU, NYIMANG, TAMA, TEMEIN) [20:450k] from the Nuba hills west into Darfur and Wadai. Darfur Daju, Mararit, Nyimang. WESTERN MANDE [30:7M] western Mali and Ivory Coast east to the Atlantic. Bambara, Dyula(Jula), Kpelle, Malinke(Mandinka), Maninka, Mende, Soninke, Susu, Vai. WESTERN OTO-MANGUEAN(Oto-Pamean-Chinateko, Tlapaneko-Manguean) [25:550k] southern central Mexico. Chinantec, Mazahua, Otomi. WISSEL LAKES-KEMANDOGA [4:92k] Wissel lakes in western Irian Jaya highlands. Ekagi, Moni, Uhmduni. WORORAN [7:500] coastal Kimberly, Western Australia. Ngarinyin, Worora, Wunambal. XINCA [4:extinct] Guatemala. YANOMAM [4:30k] western Brazil-Venezuela border. Sanuma, Yanomami, Yanomamo. YANYULAN [1:100] near Borroloola, Northern Territory, Australia. YAO [1:1M] scattered pockets in southern China and adjacent regions. Iu Mien(Yao). YARURO [1:3k] Amazonas and Apure states, Venezuela. YAVA [1:8k] central Yapen island, in Geelvink bay, Irian Jaya. YELE-SOLOMONS [8:9k] Rendova, Rossel, Russel, Savosavo, Vella Lavella and central New Georgia islands. Baniata, Bilua, Yele. YELLOW RIVER [3:3k] East Sepik province, Papua. Ak, Awun, Namie. YIWAIDJAN [4:400] Crocker and Coldburn Islands off northern Australia. Iwaidja, Margu, Maung. YUAT [6:4k] middle Yuat river, East Sepik province, Papua. Biwat, Mekmek, Miyak. YUCHI [1:50] southern Appalachians originally, now Oklahoma. YUKAGHIR [1:300] eastern Siberia, centered on the Yuna river area. YUKI-GULF [5:extinct] US Gulf coast and an outlier in northern California. YURACARE [1:2500] Beni region, Boliva. YURI [1:750] interior West Sepik province, Papua. YURIMANGUI [1:extinct] Yurimangui river, Colombia. YUTA-NAWAN(UTO-AZTECAN) [45:1.3M] southwestern US, Sonora and the Valley of Mexico. Cahita(Mayo, Yaqui), Nahuatl(Nawa), Tarahumara. ZAMUCOAN [2:4k] southeastern Bolivia and northern Paraguay. Ayoreo, Chamacoco. ZAPAROAN (Saparoan) [7:500] Columbia, Ecuador and Peru. Arabela, Iquito, Zaparo. ZUNI [1:5k] west central New Mexico. !WI [4:500] South Africa. NG|huki, Seroa, !xam. _____________________________________________________________ Pidgins and Creoles _____________________________________________________________ A pidgin is a language with a minimal grammar and a few hundred words which developed spontaneously at a point of language contact. Examples appear in situations ranging from polyglot markets to among plantation slaves. A creole is a fully developed language evolved from a pidgin. The first generation of children learning a pidgin as a native language always creolize it, though occasionally a pidgin can expand into a creole without acquiring native speakers. Since they may draw vocabulary from several languages (though usually one dominates) creoles challenge the basis of genetic classification. Many also have grammatical features not found in either parent language, but common in other creoles, which may say something basic about human language acquisition. Some pidgins and creoles share enough vocabulary to be partly intelligible with a parent language, but some do not. A creole which does and which remains in contact with the parent will often decreolize over time, becoming a dialect of the parent. The reverse process, called hypercreolization, is also known, in which the creole speakers emphasize the differences from the parent language as a matter of ethnic pride. Many hard to classify languages may have been creoles. Many odd features of English could be explained by a creole phase in the late 11th century. Afrikaans, Mbugu, Swahili and Lingala also belong to this category. The major Creoles (over 100,000 speakers) are listed below with the parent that provided most of the vocabulary. AFRIKAANS Fly Taal ARABIC Juba Arabic, Nubi ASSAMESE Naga Creole(Bodo, Kachari Bengali, Naga Assamese) BANTU Pidgin Ewondo (Trucker's Bulu) ENGLISH Bahamas English Creole, Bislama(Beach-la-Mar, Sandalwood Pidgin, Vanuatu Bislama), Eastern Caribbean(Barbados, Leeward, Trinadad, Windward and Virgin islands), Gulla(Geechee, Sea Islands Creole, Old US Black English) Hawaiian Creole English, Merico(Liberian), Pijin(Solomans Pidgin), Sranan(Taki-taki), Tok Pisan (New Guinea Pidgin, Neo-Melanesian, Australian Kriol, Torres Strait Broken, Pidgin, Pisin), West African Restructured English (Cameroons PE, Gambia PE, Krio, Kru PE, Nigerian Creole), Western Caribbean Creole (Belize, Jamaican, Miskito, Panamanian) FIJIAN Pidgin Fijian FRENCH Cajun-Louisiana Negro French, Guyanais Creole French, Haitian Creole, Isle de France (Mauritian/Morisyen, Seychellois), Lesser Antilles Creole French, Reunionnais KONGO Kituba(Kileta, Munukutuba) MALAY Ambonese Malay, Baba Malay, Bazaar Malay MOTU Hiri Motu(Police Motu) NGBANDI Sango PORTUGESE Asian (Malayo-Portuguese, Sino-Portuguese, Sri Lankan Pidgin, Gulf of Guinea (Sao Tome), Popular Brazilian (very different from Brazilian Portuguese, which is replacing it as education spreads), Upper Guinean (Bissayan and Verdean) SPANISH Zamboanguerro(Philipenes Creole Spanish) UNCERTAIN Papiamento (Portuguese, Spanish and/or Dutch) Saramaccan (Portuguese and/or English) ZULU Fanagolo A few pidgins and creoles that deserve historical mention: Delaware Jargon, based on Lenape, was a probably pre-Columbian pidgin of the Delaware valley, Pennsylvania and New York. Many of the Amerind words that entered English did so via Delaware Jargon. Halbdeutsch, the language used between the inhabitants of the Baltic coast and the Germans who conquered the area in the late Middle Ages. It was probably a creole. Lingua Franca (Sabir) was a Provencal based pidgin of the Mediterranian from before the Crusades into the late 19th century. Today the phrase lingua franca (lowercase) is used to refer to any contact language not native to either speaker in an exchange - it could be a pidgin, but is often the ex-colonial European language. Lingua Geral is a creole derived from Tupi. From the 16th to mid 18th centuries it was the majority language of Brazil. It now survives only among isolated groups of the interior. Tshinuk Wawa (Chinook Jargon) was a possibly pre-Contact pidgin based on Chinook. It had 100,000 speakers in the 19th century, but is now extinct. Zurikoa (Souriquois) was a common pidgin used in the 16th and 17th centuries from the New England coast to Iceland. It is based on Basque, who were the first whalers and fishermen to exploit the Grand Banks. It isn't well known, and is sometimes listed as an unclassified Indian language. _____________________________________________________________ Lost Tongues _____________________________________________________________ There are a number of languages that cannot be classified because they are extinct and sufficient evidence of what they were like is lacking. There are two general sorts, undecipherable scripts and indigenous languages not recorded in detail before the speakers vanished. The latter are often known only as names, and there were doubtless many more about which not even that much is preserved. A few lost tongues that were probably separate families are listed here. BAENAN [1:extinct] Bahia, Brazil. BEOTHUK [1:extinct] the language of the Red Paint people of Newfoundland and perhaps nearby areas, never properly recorded it may or may not be Algonkian in affiliation. The Beothuk were probably the tribe in contact with the Norse settlements, and later the source of the name Red Indian. ETRUSCAN [1:extinct] known only from ancient texts in central Italy. GAMELA [1:extinct] Munim river, northern coastal Brazil. IBERIAN [1:extinct] known only from ancient texts around the Ebro river. KUKURA [1:extinct] Mato Grosso Brazil. LINEAR A [1:extinct] the undeciphered script of 1500 BC Crete. Different from Linear B, which proved to be Greek. MOHENJO-DARO [1:extinct] the undeciphered script of the 3000 BC Indus valley. NATU [1:extinct] lower San Francisco river, southern Brazil. TARARIU [1:extinct] small word list from a language from somewhere in Brazil. TASMANIAN [5(?):extinct] Tasmania. Of all the lost indigenous languages Tasmanian is the most likely to drive linguists crazy. Just enough data survives to suggest it is not a member of Australian or any of the Papuan groups; and it might have been studied, traces lasted well into the era of modern linguistics, there is even a recording of a song in Tasmanian. _____________________________________________________________ Invented languages _____________________________________________________________ Many languages have been invented over the years, it is almost a traditional part of European philosophy. The two common types are outlines of supposedly rigorous logical systems of no utility whatsoever, and attempts at a universal language. Some of the later are sufficiently developed to serve as pidgins, and a few are completely worked out. Esperanto (basically a Romance language with simplified grammar, defaults to Italic) is the only real success so far. It is more than a century old and has several million speakers, including some bilingual natives. Most invented languages never amount to anything - a good case can be made that the second most successful artificial language of all time is Klingon! Volapuk(Germanic) and Interlingua(Romance) are the only other real contenders. Many artificial languages since the end of the last century are in fact just variants of Esperanto, Interlingua or Volapuk. _____________________________________________________________ Sign Languages _____________________________________________________________ Almost all the true sign languages of Earth are fairly recent; products of the eighteenth and nineteenth century schools for the deaf, which created the basic sign systems and the communities of deaf students who creolized them. While there were exceptions where hereditary deafness was common (Martha's Vineyard, Providencia Island), most earlier sign languages were effectively pidgins for use within the family. Classification of sign languages is not well developed; many have never been studied, and it is difficult to detect sound laws in languages that don't have sounds! It is important to remember that sign families do not overlap spoken families, or even spoken languages; for example British SL is unintelligible to users of American SL. A few of the known families are: BRITISH includes the sign languages of Britain, Canada and Australia, and the Langue de Signes Quebecoise. New Zealand SL is British, but with heavy ASL borrowing. CHINESE SL is used in China, including Hong Kong, and in Malaysia. EUROPEAN languages derive from Langue des Signes Francaise (LSF, FSL) and include the sign languages of Austria, Italy, Germany the Netherlands, Russia, the Czech Republic, Mexico and the United States(ASL). Recently, the US Peace Corps has spread ASL around the world as a basis for the sign languages of many third world nations. GREEK SL is apparently unrelated to European. INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE is native to India, and is the only sign language known to have over a million 'speakers' INDONESIAN SL is a post independence invention to replace European sign languages. It is also the basis for the current official system in Malaysia. PLAINS INDIAN SIGN LANGUAGE is probably unique as a fully developed sign language not originally used by the deaf. It began as a pidgin between the plains tribes about the time the horse was introduced, and later creolized. SCANDINAVIAN languages include Danish, Norwegian and Swedish sign languages. Note these are separate languages, less mutually intelligible than the spoken dialects of those nations. SPANISH SL is unrelated to the European family. The sign languages of South America tend to either belong to this family or to be derived from ASL, depending on which nation provided the missionary schools. TEMANE languages include Temane (Shuwa, Japanese Sign) and the languages of Korea and Taiwan There are also many special purpose sign languages such as those used to maintain vows of silence (European Monastic Sign) or under conditions where speech is restricted, unreliable or impossible (underwater, around loud machinery or trading floors, in broadcast studios). Most of these have limited vocabularies, and can be treated as pidgins. Some are also tied to a specific spoken language, for example some forms of Monastic Sign have 'rhymes with' or 'begins with the letter' structures referring to Latin. Some fluency in the parent language may be required to learn these. _____________________________________________________________ Bibliography _____________________________________________________________ General references. William Bright. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 4 vol. Oxford University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-19-505196-3. David Crystal. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-521-26483-3. Bernard Comrie The World's Major Languages. Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-506511-5. Standard references for language names and populations figures. CF and FM Voegelin. Classification and Index of the World's Languages. Elsevier, 1977. ISBN 0-444-00155-7 Barbara Grimes. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twelfth edition. Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1992. ISBN 0-88312-823-3 A partial electronic version is available http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/ethnologue.html Classification of Individual Phyla and Families. M Andronov 'Lexicostatistic Analysis of the Chronology of the Disintegration of Proto-Dravidian' Indo-Iranian Journal 7:170-186 (1964). M Lionel Bender(ed). The Non-Semitic Languages of Ethiopia. Michigan State University, 1976. M Lionel Bender. Omotic: A New Afroasiatic Language Family. University Museum, Southern Illinois University, 1974. John Bendor-Samuel. The Niger-Congo Languages. Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1989. ISBN 0-8191-7376-2. Paul K Benedict. 'Sino-Tibetan: Another Look' Journal of the American Oriental Society 96:167-197 (1976). Lyle Campbell and Marianne Mithun. The Languages of Native America. University of Texas Press, 1979. ISBN 0-292-74624-5. Gyula Decsy. The Uralic Protolanguage. Eurolingua, 1990. ISBN 0-931922-38-0. Isidore Dyen. A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian Languages. Waverly, 1965. Isidore Dyen, Joseph Kruskal and Paul Black. An Indoeuropean Classification: A Lexicostatistical Experiment. American Philosophical Society, 1992. ISBN 0-87169-825-0. Joseph Greenberg. Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8047-1315-4. Joseph Greenberg. The Languages of Africa. Indiana University Press, 1970. SBN 87750-115-7. Joseph and Barbara Grimes. Ethnologue Language Family Index. Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1993. ISBN 0-88312-708-3. John Holm. Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge University, 1989. ISBN 0-521-35940-6. Michael Krauss. 'Na Dene' in Thomas Sebeok. Native Languages of the Americas, volume 1. Plenum, 1976. ISBN 0-306-37157-X. David W McAlpin. Proto Elamo-Dravidian. American Philosophical Society, 1981. ISBN 0-87169-713-0. Wick R Miller. 'Classification of the Uto-Aztecan Languages Based on Lexical Evidence'. International Journal of American Linguistics 50 1-24 (1984). Christopher Mosley and R.E. Asher. Atlas of the World's Languages. Routledge Reference, 1994. ISBN 0-415-01925-7. Merritt Ruhlen. A Guide to the World's Languages, Volume I. Stanford University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8047-1894-6. Thomas Sebeok (ed). Current Trends in Linguistics. 13 vol. Mouton, 1963-1975. David Thomas and Robert Headley. 'More on Mon-Khmer Subgroups'. Lingua 25 398-418 (1970). Stephen Wurm. Languages of Australia and Tasmania. Mouton, 1972. Stephen Wurm. Papuan Languages of Oceania. Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen, 1982. ISBN 3-87808-357-2.